The Neglected "Madame Curie of the East" in Oppenheimer: Playing a Key Role in the Development of Atomic Bombs

In the original "Oppenheimer", she disappeared from her writing | Ding Guizi, Xie Mianxia

After its release, "Oppenheimer" sparked global discussion, telling the legendary and complex life of "Father of the Atomic Bomb" Oppenheimer.

While people are marveling at Nolan's ingenious directing techniques, there are also many voices on the internet who believe that the text design ignores the roles of many female scientists. # Female scientists not mentioned in Oppenheimer # have made it to the hot search. For example, as a biologist, Catherine, the wife of Oppenheimer, would regularly measure radiation for researchers; For example, Wu Jianxiong, who studied under Oppenheimer and played a crucial role in the development of atomic bombs, was known as the "Madame Curie of the East".

Today, let's learn about Wu Jianxiong's life.

In 1973, Wu Jianxiong, who had been away from his hometown for nearly 40 years, returned to his hometown wearing a qipao. At this time, she was already a member of the National Academy of Sciences and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, known as the "Madame Curie of the East". The stone bridges, black tiles, and blue stone slabs in our hometown are still in their old appearance, and many small shops have been opened along the way. She seemed to see the girl wearing a blue cloth qipao and stepping into Mingde Middle School for the first time.

1

Sincere Youth

On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China was established. The century old frost of the vast land melts in the spring breeze of the democratic republic, providing soil for the development of social economy and science education, while also exposing the surging undercurrents. The abdication of the Qing Emperor, the mutiny of Yuan Shikai, and the proliferation of political parties have led to the spread of change and terror in the thriving surface.

However, as we cross the smoke of history and follow the winding blue waves of the Liuhe River, we arrive at an ancient town at the mouth of the Yangtze River by boat, only to find that it is still peaceful and peaceful. As spring approaches, the black tiled double decker wooden house stands along the river, and the rainwater dripping from the eaves smashes small potholes on the bluestone slabs. In the alley, pomegranate trees are full of flowers, and the old man sits quietly at the door reading a book. At sunset, the wooden windows and doors were dragged out by the setting sun, casting long and slanting shadows. Every household began to burn firewood and cook.

In May 1912, it was in this spring that Wu Jianxiong was born in Liuhe Town. Whenever she mentions her hometown, she always feels proud: "My home is in Liuhe, Taicang, which was the place where Zheng He went on his voyages to the West."

On June 23, 2023, in Liuhe Ancient Town, Taicang, Suzhou, the former residence of Wu Jianxiong.

The Wu family is a local scholarly family. Wu Jianxiong's grandfather, Wu Yifeng, was a tribute student of the Taicang Zhou School and was revered by the village as Wu Xiucai.Wu Jianxiong's mother's name is Fan Fuhua, as her name suggests. She is a dignified, virtuous, thoughtful, and ambitious woman. Father Wu Zhongyi was a witness and participant in the turbulent era. He graduated from Nanyang Public School in Shanghai and experienced the Wuxu Reform and the Xinhai Revolution. He also participated in the armed struggle against Yuan Shikai and organized the Civil Defense Self Defense Corps to resist pirates.

Wu Zhongyi's ideology is advancing, pursuing openness, freedom, and gender equality. He named his children in order using the four characters "heroic and heroic", and never believed that the two characters "strong and strong" lacked the elegance and tranquility of women. In order to promote women's education, eliminate feudalism, and establish new morality, he founded Mingde Women's School in Liuhe Town, specializing in teaching cultural and vocational skills to girls. He enjoys playing the organ, singing, and reciting poetry. In his leisure time, he invites Shanghai Film Company to come to the town to play movies.

Wu Jianxiong's cultural enlightenment during his childhood came from his elementary school years at Mingde Girls' School. Under the guidance of her father, she studied classical Chinese books from a young age, made mineral radios by herself, had a self reliant and confident personality, and was full of curiosity about everything.

In 1923, Wu Jianxiong was admitted to Suzhou Women's Normal School with excellent grades. She follows the school motto of "sincerity", is low-key and diligent in her studies.

Here, she read Madame Curie's biography for the first time, learned about the development of science in Europe, and touched upon the subtle relationship between humanity and the vast universe. During a conversation with her classmates, she discovered that non teacher education students also need to study mathematics, physics, chemistry, and English. Therefore, she borrowed her classmates' textbooks and homework and used her evenings to self-study mathematics, physics, and chemistry courses.

In a speech titled "Modern Women", Wu Jianxiong met Mr. Hu Shi for the first time. This advanced and gentle teacher stepped out of "New Youth" and entered her learning life. After graduating from high school, she went to Shanghai China Public School where Hu Shi taught with a revered heart.

In an exam supervised by Hu Shi, Wu Jianxiong sat at the front and wrote his views on the 300 year intellectual history of the Qing Dynasty in a flowing manner. When submitting his paper to the academic affairs office, Hu Shi mentioned to Yang Honglie and Ma Junwu that he had given a student a perfect score. Yang and Ma also stated that there was a student in their class who scored a perfect score on the overall exam. As they spoke, the three of them wrote down the names of their students on paper, and upon comparison, they discovered that they were all Wu Jianxiong.

This exam earned Wu Jianxiong the appreciation of Hu Shi and established a lifelong friendship between teachers and students.

2

The Flower of Leading the Way

In 1929, Wu Jianxiong was recommended to the Mathematics Department of Nanjing Central University. At the end of the first semester, she applied to transfer to her favorite physics department.

At the Six Dynasties Matsushita of Central University, students often see a graceful, elegant and intellectual girl who studies quietly, and call her "Nanlou Qionghua". At that time, Wu Jianxiong had just switched majors, and many science and English knowledge were far from enough to rely solely on self-study. Therefore, she always likes to think quietly under the tree alone, or recite with an English dictionary in her arms. When recalling this period of life, she said, "At that time, I was genuinely studying and forgot about my youth."

During her university years, she completed her thesis writing under the guidance of Shi Shiyuan. Shi Shiyuan worked with Madame Curie at the Radium Research Institute of the University of Paris in France for many years, and was the only Chinese physics PhD brought by Madame Curie. In addition to teaching, he always tells his classmates about Madame Curie's various anecdotes, which greatly admires Wu Jian.

On July 6, 1934, Sun Guangyuan, the dean of the School of Science at Central University, was the first to give Wu Jianxiong a degree hat amidst applause. At that time, there were not many female students studying at Central University, and very few were able to graduate smoothly from the Department of Physics.

After graduation, Wu Jianxiong first worked as a teaching assistant in the Department of Physics at Zhejiang University. Later, on the recommendation of Hu Shi, he went to work at the Institute of Physics at the Academia Sinica.

[Note: In 1928, the Institute of Physics of the National Academia Sinica was established in Shanghai, and changed its location seven years later. After the establishment of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Physics of the National Academia Sinica and the Institute of Physics of the National Beiping Institute were merged, and the Institute of Applied Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences was established, which is now the Institute of Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.]

When Wu Jianxiong first arrived at the Institute of Physics, the autumn was just thick in Shanghai, and the road was covered with golden wutong leaves. Among the researchers who came to greet her, there was a passionate and beautiful female doctor named Gu Jinghui. Gu Jinghui is lively and cheerful, with a beautiful face. She enjoys wearing cheongsam, appreciating poetry, listening to music, and tasting red wine. She is a woman who is both passionate about academics and loves life.

Gu Jinghui became a member of the American Physical Society in 1929, and two years later, she obtained a Ph.D. in Physics from the University of Michigan, becoming the first female Ph.D. in physics in modern Chinese history. After returning to China, she worked as a researcher at the Institute of Physics at the Academia Sinica while also engaging in teaching and talent cultivation.

She shares the same interests as Wu Jianxiong, both immersed in exploring the mysteries within atoms. For this reason, she insisted on establishing a nuclear physics research laboratory. The research room has simple conditions, covering a total of 80 square meters, of which 14 square meters are separated by iron doors, with long tables, chairs, two sofas, and coffee tables, forming the lounge and reception room. The remaining area is used as a laboratory for placing experimental equipment. It's dim and humid here, with no sunlight all day long.

This laboratory is a microcosm of the Chinese scientific community that struggled to explore in the darkness at that time. Wu Jianxiong and Gu Jinghui devoted themselves wholeheartedly to this pure land, repeatedly colliding with the south wall and starting again, only to capture the faint light of truth.

But the good times didn't last long. The Japanese army invaded, with frequent wars and internal and external troubles tearing the country apart, leaving many scars. Under the cover of the nest, there are finished eggs, and the research institute is like a small boat in the towering waves, difficult to move forward. Gu Jinghui saw that Wu Jianxiong was in his prime and had great potential, so even though she was reluctant to part ways, she didn't want her to be stuck in the same place and hinder her future. She introduced Wu Jianxiong to the teaching strength and research level of the University of Michigan in the United States, and expressed her willingness to contact mentors and friends for her, strongly recommending her to study abroad and expand her horizons.

In the end, Wu Jianxiong followed the advice of his mentor and, with the support of his uncle, boarded the USS Hoover cruise ship heading to the United States. On the day of parting, Wu Jianxiong stood on the deck, with seagulls swirling and the sea breeze from her hometown blowing her hair in disarray. She reluctantly bid farewell to her parents and began her career studying in the United States. At this moment, Wu Jianxiong did not know that this was her last encounter with her parents.

3

The Hall of Knowledge

In August 1936, Wu Jianxiong arrived in the United States and planned to study at the University of Michigan. Stepping onto this exotic land, everything was fresh and interesting. She decided to visit her friends at the University of California, Berkeley before entering school, but they were unable to receive her due to unforeseen circumstances. At this time, Yuan Jialiu, the grandson of Yuan Shikai, was studying at the University of Berkeley. Under the arrangement of the China International Student Club, he took Wu Jianxiong to visit the campus.

The environment here is elegant, with a strong academic atmosphere, and students are freely and enthusiastically exploring disciplinary issues. They visited the southeast corner of the campus and arrived at a simple small house with a tightly closed door. Yuan Jialiu told Wu Jianxiong, "This is a radiation laboratory, it's Ernest Lawrence's laboratory." Wu Jianxiong exclaimed in surprise. She had heard Lawrence's name during her college years and didn't expect to stand so close to him.

Wu Jianxiong is in a laboratory at Columbia University in the United States.

Lawrence is a renowned American physicist who invented the cyclotron in the early 1930s and later established the University of California Radiology Laboratory, pioneering a model of large-scale scientific research conducted by large research teams. This radiation laboratory has an extremely high status, with a 37 inch cyclotron built to accelerate charged particles, collide with different atomic nuclei, and conduct popular nuclear experiments at the time.

Later, Wu Jianxiong chose to stay at Berkeley to study, which was an era when physics was flourishing in nuclear research, and the campus was filled with talented people. Her classmates include the future President of the Canadian Physical Society and National Science Advisor, Walker; The young professor who taught her quantum mechanics was the future "father of atomic bombs" Oppenheimer; Segri, who guided her doctoral thesis, is the future Nobel laureate.

Here, Wu Jianxiong obtained the key to unlocking the forefront of physics.

Starting from 1938, Wu Jianxiong began conducting experimental research under the guidance of Lawrence, the director of the radiation laboratory. In 1939, she collaborated with Segre to conduct experiments using a cyclotron to analyze the impact of neutrons on uranium nuclei and their products. The following year, the experimental results were published in the cutting-edge publication of the American physics community, Physical Review.

At the same time, Wu Jianxiong is also under invisible pressure. She achieved excellent grades and applied for a scholarship from the school, but at that time, American society discriminated against Easterners and never awarded scholarships to Easterners. In the end, only a scholarship was given to her. Despite this, Wu Jianxiong, who is living in a foreign country, always insists on two things: first, clothing, maintaining the consistent attire in China - a high necked qipao; The second is diet. She couldn't get used to Western fast food and found a good and affordable Chinese restaurant. Not only did she become a regular here, but she also introduced other classmates to come and visit.

During his school years, Wu Jianxiong devoted himself to research and occasionally went to the library with Yuan Jialiu. The two chatted and gradually became acquainted, acquainted, and in love. On May 30, 1942, the day before Wu Jianxiong's birthday, their wedding was held in the garden of Robert, the first Nobel laureate in the United States and dean of the University of California Institute of Technology. Robert held up his champagne and said, "The gift I am giving you is a message: May your experiment come first and your life come second in the years to come." This became the motto of Wu Jianxiong and Yuan Jialiu.

At the time of the outbreak of the Pacific War, the parents of both sides were unable to attend the wedding, but Chinese international students such as Lu Jiaxi, Qian Xuesen, and Zhang Wenyu who were in the United States at the time all came upon hearing the news, and the scene was extremely lively. The lawn was trimmed neatly, and the sunlight shone through the dense green leaves on the ground. Wu Jianxiong and Yuan Jialiu walked hand in hand into the hall of marriage amidst laughter and joy.

four

Outstanding contributions

In February 1937, Nazi Germany began implementing the "uranium program.". After the Pearl Harbor incident, the United States joined the battlefield, and a group of scientists, including Einstein, proposed to create an atomic bomb before Nazi Germany. On December 6, 1941, the United States officially established the top secret nuclear research program codenamed Manhattan. In the Manhattan Engineering Management Area, a large number of outstanding scientists from around the world are gathered.

On June 14, 1974, in Massachusetts, USA, Harvard University President Derek Bok took a group photo with honorary degree recipients. The first person on the right in the front row was Wu Jianxiong.

At that time, Wu Jianxiong was about to start his doctoral thesis topic selection, but for some unknown reason, his mentors suddenly became too busy to be seen. She only received a piece of paper left by Lawrence, on which she suggested testing the theory of bremsstrahlung. One day, Fermi, the proposer of the theory of bremsstrahlung radiation, came to the laboratory and affirmed Wu Jianxiong's nuclear fission experiment. He gave her some guidance and asked her to keep the experimental data and detailed information confidential.

At this time, Wu Jianxiong did not know that Fermi was the second person responsible for manufacturing the atomic bomb; Lawrence, who proposed the title of her paper, was one of the "uranium advisory committee leaders" appointed by Roosevelt; Segri, who always accompanies her in experiments, is also a core member in the production of atomic bombs; Her teacher, Oppenheimer, went through the entire process of preparing and completing an atomic bomb.

After day after day of experiments, Wu Jianxiong made rapid progress and formed a research article on the cross section of xenon gas produced after uranium nuclear fission on seed absorption, while she herself was slowly drawn into the Manhattan Project. In March 1944, Wu Jianxiong joined the Key Research Laboratory of the Atomic Bomb under the Manhattan Project at Columbia University, solving the problem of the inability to sustain chain reactions within the engineering area.

On July 16, 1945, the first atomic bomb explosion test was successful. Shortly thereafter, "Little Boy" and "Fatty Man" exploded in Japan, and World War II came to an end amidst two controversial mushroom clouds. At this time, Wu Jianxiong has returned to basic nuclear physics research. She heard that there is a relatively large iron free, cylindrical electromagnetic machine in the school β The spectrometer was stored in the warehouse due to the war and is about to be transported back to use.

Afterwards, Wu Jianxiong invested in another research project - related to β The history, development, current situation, and most critical issues of decay. Every Friday, she takes the train back to her home in Princeton. Princeton University has a library with a rich collection of books that is open day and night. She spent several weekends here and almost read all about it β Decaying books and magazines.

Wu Jianxiong's three most outstanding contributions in the field of physics mainly revolve around β Decay unfolds.

The first major contribution is the early research on β A series of precise experiments and preliminary conclusions in the field of decay have provided rich and highly credible supporting materials for the academic community.

The second major contribution was the successful design of experiments that confirmed parity non conservation.

Simply put, parity is a left-right symmetry in space. At that time, scientists believed in parity conservation, which means that changes in time and space would not alter the form and results of physical laws. However, parity conservation has encountered difficult and contradictory situations in some experiments. In the summer of 1956, Yang Zhenning and Li Zhengdao investigated the experimental basis of the concept of parity conservation and found that the academic community only tested the parity conservation law in strong and electromagnetic interactions, but ignored the process of weak interactions.

They raised doubts and sought to understand β The decaying Wu Jianxiong sought help. After listening to this, Wu Jianxiong and a group of scientists from the National Bureau of Standards in the United States worked hard in the laboratory and decided to use cobalt 60 to β Conduct experiments on the source. In the end, the experiment clearly and accurately confirmed the idea that parity is not conserved in weak interactions.

The third major contribution was the leadership's design of experiments, which proved that β The theory of conservation of vector flow in decay is the first experimental confirmation in the history of physics that there is a close relationship between electromagnetic interactions and weak interactions.

In 1957, Yang Zhenning and Li Zhengdao were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their proof of non conservation of parity, but Wu Jianxiong, who made equally outstanding contributions, was not on the list of winners. For many years, Wu Jianxiong has not publicly expressed his opinion on this matter. But in a letter she wrote to a friend in 1989, she once said, "Throughout my life, I devoted myself entirely to the study of weak effects and enjoyed it. Although I never did research work for the sake of winning awards, when my work was overlooked for some reason, it still deeply hurt me."

five

A female scientist from China

Looking back at the scientific community in the 20th century, female scientists did not leave many stories, and the most famous Mary Curie was also referred to as her husband's surname "Curie" in historical narratives.

On June 26, 1982, Wu Jianxiong was invited to give an academic report titled "Discoveries of Non Conservation of Parity" in Beijing. Image | Xinhua News Agency

In his academic and professional career, Wu Jianxiong has also suffered multiple setbacks due to his female identity, such as difficulty obtaining scholarships due to his Asian identity, being worried about being unable to endure hardship during his first meeting with a teacher, or finding it difficult to be valued in the workplace.

But she has constantly proved herself with determination, carefulness and wisdom, and has made her first female step in many fields: the first female president of the American Physical Society, the first female winner of the Comstock Award of the National Academy of Sciences, the first female honorary doctor of Princeton University, the first female elected as the annual industrial research scientist in the United States, and the first foreign female academician awarded by the Chinese Academy of Sciences... What is most praised by the scientific community is the integrity and accuracy of her experimental work in her 40 years of scientific career. She has never done a wrong experiment before, and one can imagine the rigor, stability, and strict requirements required behind it.

On December 15, 1981, at the Hilton Hotel in Rome, Italy, Wu Jianxiong received the Outstanding Women's Award here. She proudly said, "I was born and raised in China, and received higher scientific education in the United States. I am well aware of the strengths of traditional Chinese culture and have strong confidence in the power of Western culture and modern society."

When we flip through old photos and try to enter her life, we will find that she is not only an honored scientist, but also a rich, elegant, gentle, and advanced thinking Eastern woman. She has a preference for qipao, and when conducting experiments, she also wears a qipao outer cover as an experimental suit; Wuliang's black hair always rises high, and Wu Nong's soft language is as gentle as the smoke waves of Jiangnan. Dressed and behaving, exuding a refined and gentle demeanor from the East.

During his leisure time, Wu Jianxiong rarely listens to opera, drama, and popular music, but instead falls in love with Peking Opera and Kunqu Opera. She remembers that when she was studying in China, her uncle took her to watch "The Peony Pavilion" and "Dream of Wandering in the Garden" twice. After watching them, she would say to everyone how beautiful Kunqu opera was. Later, her uncle gave her an old-fashioned phonograph with a babbling singing voice, accompanying her through countless lonely times.

In their homes in the United States, Wu Jianxiong and Yuan Jialiu have also accumulated excellent traditional Chinese culture: the traditional paintings of famous artists such as Xu Beihong, Zhang Daqian, and Wu Zuoren, as well as Chinese carpets, wooden carved furniture, and Anhui iron paintings of plum, orchid, bamboo, and chrysanthemum, making the two of them feel the warmth of their hometowns at all times.

Even though he settled in the United States, Wu Jianxiong always had the warmest and softest corner in his heart - the Jiangnan water town where he spent his childhood. Grandfather held her in his arms and smiled with wrinkles on his face, calling her nickname "Vivi" lightly; Before her departure, her mother gently reminded her to repeatedly check the accompanying items under the candlelight; My father held her little hand and played with the radio, telling her word for word the heroic stories and life philosophies in ancient books and classics.

In the 1970s, after the normalization of Sino US relations, Wu Jianxiong and Yuan Jialiu also embarked on a journey back home. They arrived in Guangzhou and then returned to Wu Jianxiong's hometown of Liuhe. At this time, her parents had already passed away, and only the Mingde School founded by her father still stood, with a resounding stream of books. The bitterness of changing things and the warmth of returning to her hometown mixed her emotions.

At the Great Hall of the People in Beijing, Zhou Enlai personally received Wu Jianxiong and his wife. Although it was their first meeting, they had a great conversation. Later on, Wu Jianxiong and his wife often went home to take their son to experience Chinese culture. In 1988, the couple donated 1.7 million yuan to build a two-story Jiangnan water town characteristic building called "Wu Jianxiong Ziwei Pavilion" on the Mingde campus, which was used as a reception building. The lush Ziwei ancient tree sways gently in the wind, concealing this Jiangnan pavilion with green tiles and white walls. Every blade of grass and every tree embodies Wu Jianxiong's expectations and love for the children in the countryside, just like her father.

The soul returns and wanders around the hometown, while the fragrant grass and the setting sun grow together. In 1997, Wu Jianxiong passed away due to illness. Yuan Jialiu followed her last wish and temporarily placed her ashes in Mingde School. Later, the cemetery was completed on campus, and in front of the tomb chamber were a pair of dark granite balls rotating horizontally in different directions, with two water columns spraying upwards at the top, one high and one low. On the black granite slab next to the pool, Li Zhengdao's interpretation is carved:

According to the law of parity conservation, the evolution of any two completely symmetric systems should always be left and right symmetric. This seemingly reasonable law was overturned by Professor Wu's cobalt nucleon decay experiment in January 1957.

The two stone balls in this building represent two symmetrical cobalt nuclei, and the electron distribution generated by their decay is represented by water flow, which is asymmetric.

To commemorate Wu Jianxiong's epoch-making scientific contributions.

Li Zhengdao

April 4, 1998

On May 18, 1990, with the approval of the International Asteroid Center, the asteroid with the international number 2752 was named "Wu Jianxiong Star" by the Purple Mountain Observatory of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. It has a diameter of only 32 kilometers, but emits light in the vast universe and appears in human vision. Just like Wu Jianxiong, a woman who walked from a small town in the water town of Jiangnan, broke through the smoke of the times, devoted herself to research, and walked towards the world, becoming an indelible and brilliant star in the history of physics.

Reference materials:

1. Zhu Jianshe, Wan Shuyuan, Yuan Jiuhong, "Wu Jianxiong's lifelong photography collection dedicated to physical science", Southeast University Press, 2002 edition;

2. Jiang Ye, "Wu Jianxiong and Yuan Jialiu", Hebei People's Publishing House, 2013 edition;

3. Meng Xianming, "Biography of Wu Jianxiong in the Top Ten Chinese Scientists Series", Henan Literature and Art Publishing House, 2017 edition;

4. Zhang Huailiang, "Biography of Wu Jianxiong", Nanjing University Press, 2002 edition;

5. Edited by Zhu Ziqiang, "Physics Queen Wu Jianxiong", published by China Peace Publishing House in 2022;

6. Xiao Taitao, "Wu Jianxiong - Chinese Female Scientist Undertreated by the Nobel Prize", Dialectical Communication of Nature, Issue 3, 2005;

7. Fang Huaji and Ye Gaoxiang, "The Development and International Exchange of Chinese Physics in the First 50 Years of the 20th Century", Research on Dialectics of Nature, Issue 3, 2005.